Medieval Architecture free essay sample

The Middle Ages, also known as the Medieval era, though scarred with a history of violence and war, has given the world some of the most marvelous and beautiful pieces of art, particularly in architecture. The Middle Ages is the name given to the time period from the late 5th century to the 15th century, particular to European history. The construction of these types of buildings was a constant for various cultures for a thousand years. They can be categorized into three phases; Pre-Romanesque, Romanesque and Gothic. The most important buildings during medieval times were religious, defensive and governmental or power related. Figure 1 – Sarcophagus of Abbess Theodechilde in the Abbey of Jouarre. The Pre-Romanesque era started, arguably, with the Merovingian Dynasty of the Franks. Some say that not much was gained, from an architectural point of view, during the rule of the Franks but I believe there are a couple of points worth making. We will write a custom essay sample on Medieval Architecture or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The Merovingian rule lasted from the 5th century, after the fall of the Roman Empire, to the late 8th century. Most of their buildings followed after the Roman basilica style. The Franks, due to religious beliefs, pushed the building of monasteries and included crypts within their structures. (see figure 1) Although there were many monasteries built with crypts, only five remain intact today. One of the noteworthy aspects of Merovingian architecture was that they are credited with being the first to build raised reliquaries of the saint within their monasteries, located behind the altar. Figure 3 – The 9th century Torhalle, or gatehouse, at the Lorsch Abbey in Germany. Figure 2 – Exterior of Corvey Abbey, showing the Westwork. The Carolingian Dynasty, which some say is where Pre-Romanesque architecture began, reigned from the late 8th century into the 10th century. Also deriving from a Frankish noble family, the Carolingians are credited with a couple of key designs that carry forward into the Romanesque and Gothic phases of architecture. The westwork, which was basically the west facing side of the church consisting of two towers with several stories between them, was probably the most significant change in architectural design for churches during the Pre-Romanesque time period. The first church to incorporate this new style was the St. Riquier Abbey completed in 799. The plan included equal emphasis on both the east and west ends, including a complex west facade. This church was later destroyed but the westwork was to be repeated in many Carolingian churches and passed on to Ottonian and Romanesque architecture. The oldest standing example today of this style is the Corvey Abbey built in the late 9th century. (see figure 2) Another piece of the Carolingian architecture is the Torhalle, or gatehouse, built at Lorsch. This gatehouse, built around 800, stands today in perfect condition. (see figure 3) It was built as the formal entrance to the Lorsch Abbey. And though it is small in comparison to the many other buildings at the time, it remains the oldest monument of the Carolingian era. Figure 4 – The Gloucester Cathedral in England. The Romanesque era is where we see a dramatic change in architectural style as well as an increase in the amount of building that takes place. The Romanesque period doesn’t have an exact date range, but most tend to agree that it existed from roughly the 9th century to the 12th century. Although churches remain the number one built structure in the time, we do see a large increase in the number of castles being built. There are many characteristics of Romanesque architecture. New building ideas and techniques were introduced, such as stone vault ceilings, buttresses, semicircular arches as well as barrel, groin and ribbed vaults. As new designs were added, the need for stronger supports systems resulted in massive double shelled walls, large piers and drum columns. (see figure 4) The Romanesque period is known for massive structures and elaborate designs. From this we see a noticeable increase in the skill of the masons during this time as the stone work displays an obvious increase in precision and engineering. Much of the architecture in the Romanesque era evolved into Gothic architecture. The Gothic era ran from the 12th century into the 16th century. There wasn’t necessarily a clean break from Romanesque to Gothic styles of architecture, but rather a gradual shift in design. The main characteristics of Gothic architecture are the pointed ribbed vaults and arches, flying buttresses and, in place of solid walls, a cluster of columns. Due to the vertical emphasis of the design, the archways could be redesigned and stretched or pointed. Four main Figure 5 – The depressed arch supported by fan vaulting at King’s College Chapel, England. ypes of arch designs that are commonly found within Gothic architecture are the lancet arch, which is simply a steeply pointed arch, the equilateral arch, the flamboyant arch and the depressed arch as seen in the King’s College Chapel. (see figure 5) Due to the new design of supporting the weight of the ceiling through the columns and flying buttresses, there was no need for walls made of heavy materials. With all the columns and archways in place, the structure took on a skeletal look. This gave way to expanding the once small openings for windows to an expanse of window space providing plenty of light to the interior of the structure. This space was commonly filled with stained glass. From this, stained glass flourished as an art work to be an essential part of many of the churches in the medieval time. Castles are a huge part of Medieval times and started to grew in number and size during the Romanesque and Gothic eras. The castles were massive and built primarily for defensive purposes. However, some were designed to convey messages of wealth, power and respect as well as fear and domination. Besides a military need, castles were used for administrative purposes as well as a residence. Typical castle residents consisted of the castle’s owner, his family and his military and administrative support staff. Castles were generally made from local materials of stone and wood as well as recycled materials, like Roman bricks and marble. There are, of course, exceptions to this depending on how much money and/or power the person building the castle had. For example, William the Conqueror had the White Tower of The Tower of London built from Caen stone, imported from France. (see figure 6) Figure 6 – The White Tower of the Tower of London. Castles come in all different shapes, sizes and designs depending on the materials available as well as the terrain chosen to build on. Some of the common characteristics of castles are; the motte – an earthen mound created with a flat top for the castle to be built upon; the moat – a large ditch around the castle, typically filled with water; the bailey – fortification that surrounds the keep; the keep – the actual residence of the lord in charge and the most strongly defended part of the castle; the gatehouse – the entrance to the castle; and the curtain wall – a large defensive wall, typically between two bastions. Castle construction would depend on the materials chosen for the building. Earth and timber castles were less expensive to build but could be constructed in most locations due to plentiful resources and most skilled workers had wood working skills. Stone castles cost much more, take longer to complete and require higher skilled masons, and many of them. Not to mention that the location was often relative to the location of the rock quarry. Naturally, stone castles were many times stronger than ones made from timber and, in the eyes of many, were worth the extra cost and time. Depending on the lord in charge and the primary reason for building the castle, the architectural design didn’t stop with just the construction of the building. Many castles maintained beautiful landscapes to compliment their architectural master piece. As seen in figure 7, landscapes play an important role in the overall allure of the entire estate. This particular landscape for the Leeds Castle in England has been maintained since the 13th century. Figure 7 – Panoramic view of the Leeds Castle in England. Throughout the Middle Ages, the key to the many successful pieces of architecture has been the architect. Of course they were not called architects back then, instead they were simply called masons. Often time there were many masons working together on one project. The mason in charge of the design and construction was sometimes referred to as the master mason. Prior to the 13th century, most masons were trained on the job site. From the 13th century onward, the masons took on apprentices and training became more formalized. The masons maintained a constant presence on the job site in smaller structures attached to the building project called lodges. They would store their tools, eat their meals and perform all their inside type work within their lodge. Masonry was one of the few crafts that did not form into a trade guild prior to the 14th century. In later centuries, the masons and their lodge became what we know today as the Freemasons. Architectural design and innovation was not protected and masons often borrowed ideas from one another. In the 14th century, masons were sent to study the design incorporated with the Chateau de Mehun-sur-Yevre in France. This structure was destroyed in the 18th century. Figure 8 shows the ruins today and figure 9 shows what the chateau would have looked like. Figure 9 – Artist rendition of what the Chateau de Mehun-sur-Yevre in France may have looked like. Figure 8 – Current day Chateau de Mehun-sur-Yevre in France. During the estimated thousand years of the Middle Ages, and what we know of it, it is quite evident that architecture played an important part of each society. In religions, in governments and in noble families, the physical structure of the building was just as important to the people as were the traditions and work carried out within. Architecture was not merely a necessary profession but it was a desired form of art work and we are fortunate that so many of these master pieces have been left for us to study and admire.

An Overview Of The Gender Situation In The Philippines Essays

An Overview Of The Gender Situation In The Philippines Essays An Overview Of The Gender Situation In The Philippines Essay An Overview Of The Gender Situation In The Philippines Essay The socio-cultural traditions are clashing with the MET and cyberspace generation. The long history of colonialism has embedded a patriarchal culture among Filipinos. The conception of women as full-time homemakers, as subordinated to men, violence against them is private, as reserve labor force, and as sexual objects is now being eroded by modern women asserting themselves in many aspects of life. But on the other hand, some are either reorganized, discriminated, or even exploited by the harsh realities of global economy and consumerism. Both the changes and the inertia of traditions are the backdrop of a very active and dynamic womens movement. The Philippines is a main player in the international womens arena and this is anchored on a very vibrant local womens movement. Numerous organizations and Nags exist for the cause of gender equality and other related women issues. This puts the gender equality issues at the forefront Of national discourse and precludes further downslide of women status in the modern Philippine society. Indeed, there are many handles for the changes to happen. These legal and policy gains resulted from the strong voice of women that started even during the anti-dictatorship struggle that culminated with the ascension of Corcoran Aquinas as the first woman president of the country. The 1987 Constitution states two prominent provisions. The first in the Declaration of Principles Article II Section 14 which asserted that The State recognizes the role of women in nation-building and shall ensure the fundamental equality before the law of women and men. Additionally, the Article XIII-Labor: Section 14 provided that The state shall protect working women by providing safe and healthful working conditions taking into account their maternal functions, and such facilities and opportunities that will enhance their welfare and enable them to realize their full potential in the service of the nation. Following from constitutional provisions and the subsequent efforts to broaden the its principles, numerous legislation were enacted that relates to the various aspects of women and gender concerns, The list include: Gender and Development Law (5% of government agencies budget is for gender concerns) Party-List Law (women as a particular sector for representation in the legislature through party-list elections) Anti-Sexual Harassment Law (defining SSH and providing mechanisms) Anti- Rape Law (elevation of rape as crime against person) Barraging Day Care Center Law (day care center for every village) Women in Nation-Building Law (allocation of budget for women from development funds from foreign governments and multilateral institutions) Anti Mail- Order-Bride Law (making the practice unlawful) Repatriation Law (repatriation of Filipinos who lost citizenship by marriage in case Of need) Non-Discrimination Law in Labor Code (women protection in hiring and pay) Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law (equal rights for women to be recipients of land) Military Training equality (women can enter the military and police schools and providing facilities for them) While the legal framework is there, the actual situation mirrors the deep gender divide. In the aspect of women in politics, the notable success of overall women is overshadowed by the actual ground level statistics. The lady Vice-President is up to now a shoo-in in the next presidential elections in 2004. But the big picture shows that of all the elective positions occupied through the 1998 elections, only 15% are women. In the two-chamber Congress, the Senate (Upper House) has 17. 4% women membership (4 out of 23 seats) which the House of Representatives (Lower House) has 12. 4% (27 out of 217 seats). The first party-list elections in 1998 wherein sectors groups like women competed to get a maximum of 3 seats ere party in the House of Representativesresulted in the winning of one (1) seat for a single womens party. Five (5) Other womens party did not make the minimum votes required. At the local government level, women Provincial Governors constitute 17% while Vicegerents are at 1 1. 5% level. Among the City and Town Mayors, 14. 5% of them are women while the ranks of the Vice- Mayors are at low of 10. 8%. The labor force statistics show also a mixed picture. Since there was a notable finalization of the workforce in the past years, July 2000 figures showed that there are 1. 42 million unemployed women while there are 2. 31 million unemployed men. However, more women are taken in for labor flexibility arrangements especially in the big services sector like in retail trade. This leaves them exposed to employment insecurity and unfair compensation schemes. Women still accounts for 53% of the unpaid family workers while they constitute only 37. 7% of the wage and salary earners. Though this shows that the regular income possibilities for women are still limited, the average household annual income of female-headed families is higher. The situation also pushes them to seek employment overseas. Increasing numbers of domestic helpers and entertainers are also being deployed both legally and illegally. Within organizations, the gender balance is under overhaul. Trade union leadership is still male-dominated but women committees and affirmative actions have changed the complexion of decision-making.

International Criminal Justice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4750 words

International Criminal Justice - Essay Example There are no guidelines that can serve societies that have endured a governing process that included crimes against humanity and gross abuses f human rights, but that is currently making a democratic transition based on constitutionalism and respect for the individual. Fashioning an appropriate approach is rendered more difficult to the extent that the former regime voluntarily gave up power as part f a bargain with the democratic opposition, and yet remains on the scene, even continuing to control the armed forces and internal police apparatus. The Southern Cone countries f Chile and Argentina pose this challenge in its sharpest possible form, but the same type f issue is posed for many other countries, including South Africa and several Central American countries. The complexity f this challenge has been widely revealed over the course f the last year or so by the controversy surrounding the arrest f the former Chilean dictator, Augusto Pinochet. At issue most fundamentally is whether international standards governing the accountability f leaders takes precedence over the implementation f a national bargain in Chile, giving Pinochet effective immunity, and even a position f Senator for Life. Extending law to govern crimes f state has more generally resurfaced in this period as a result f the end f the Cold War, and even more so, the human abuse arising from the break-up f the former Yugoslavia during the course f the 1990s. For one thing, a special criminal tribunal has been established at The Hague with authority over such allegations, as well as a parallel effort arising from the genocidal events that occurred in Rwanda in 1994. As well, through a transnational coalition f NGOs in collaboration with a series f governments, the Rome Treaty was signed in 1998 with the goal f establishing a permanent international criminal court. (Dammer 2006, 100-102) How can we explain this resurgence f intergovernmental interest in criminal accountability for political and military leaders acting under the authority f their respective sovereign states The impulse to impose such responsibility originated in a half-hearted way after World War I, with the Versailles Peace Treaty recommending a criminal prosecution f Kaiser Wilhelm and a duty for Germany to carry on against lesser figures in a special court established at Leipzig. These initiatives came to nothing, the Kaiser finding asylum in nearby Holland, and the Leipzig trials exhibiting Germany's lack f political will to punish its own nationals. International involvement between nations is not new. (Grotius 1853, 1-7) The twentieth century, however, has seen an incredible increase in the number and variety f international organizations, including the failed League f Nations f the 1920s, other post World War I agreements, and the United Nations and Bretton Woods agreements following World War II. The second half f the century has seen a virtual explosion f governmental and non-governmental organizations operating in the world arena. (Weigend 2002, 1232-1242) Despite the phenomenal growth f international cooperation and interdependence, the world is increasingly less humane. Conflicts generating Nazi-like atrocities have increased since the end ÃŽ ¿f that regime, (Brown 1999, 10-11) as exemplified by ethnic conflicts in Rwanda, Bosnia, Indonesia, Sierra Leone, and Kosovo.  

Private Security Companies of Hostile Countries Coursework

Private Security Companies of Hostile Countries - Coursework Example Though overall security responsibility of people is taken up by occupying forces, the militants target the private and government organisations that help in development of infrastructure and organisations that help in economic development. Thus they try to distort the development activities that help in rebuilding the country. The important objectives of the expatriate security companies are to offer training for local police and to give security for private and governmental organisations as the police and military forces in Iraq are not in adequate number to protect them. Even the international organisations like UN offices that are helping in rebuilding of Iraq, voluntary organisations and MNC companies need security from the militants. To meet the above-mentioned requirements, the expatriate security companies have to train local police and maintain security personnel for the protection of private as well as government and international facilities. The important issue is about rec ruiting personnel that can provide security to the organisations, who are clients of the security companies. The recruitment will be of two types. Recruiting expatriates (westerners) and recruiting local people. However, both the above options have their own drawbacks. The recruitment of westerners costs more for the company but assures efficient services. In the contrast, the recruitment of the locals may result in less expenditure for the company regarding salaries but may not result in adequate security as the locals are more prone to the relations with militants as well as they are more familiar with the surroundings. Consequently, the recruitment of locals in to the security companies in countries like Iraq and their reliability in security operations is the point of discussion in this paper. Hence, the recruitment of expatriates comes to the fore when the security companies find that there are no sufficient locals fit for the security operations. Research Hypothesis: Do expatriates can fill the security vacuum in countries like Iraq by recruiting local personnel Do the training given by the companies to local police is enough in providing the much needed security to people, organisations and the companies in countries like Iraq Methodology The information necessary for the assignment

Business plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Business plan - Essay Example (Deitel, et al, 2004, 15) However, as mentioned earlier, the development in the eyes of the ones who are in charge of the enhancement of the operating systems is never ending. Hence, although there were already some great achievements in terms of the developed operating systems, things got better each time there are new innovations introduced (Warford, 2005, 41). Most of the sectors of the entire society actually depended on technology ever since the time it was first introduced to the human civilization. It could not be denied then that among the said sectors are business entities. In this particular discussion, an outlined plan as to how information technology could be successfully utilized to create an efficient IS operation to support an organization that has employees who are working home based established to work for at least three months time. The development of different operating systems that actually perform the tasks needed in business, from the most basic calculating procedures toward the complicated procedures of accounting and systematic planning of business transactions, the computer technology or most likely known as Information technology have actually been the main source of successful trade and exchange transactions in the business industry. Although the past have already placed a strong impact on how the people viewed business operations done through the Internet, several business enthusiasts never ceased finding ways by which they would be able to attain success within the said industry. Many among the business owners around the world still believe in the benefits that investing in online business ventures would naturally bring their organizations. As for a fact, the said situation is quickly becoming a trend both among organizations that are already established and the business and even those business entities that are just starting to join the said competitive industry. Most of the benefits that the said system of business

Profitability and Corporate Leverage Policy of Firms

Profitability and Corporate Leverage Policy of Firms Abstract This study attempts to determine the relationship between the profitability and leverage policy of firms of Fuel and Energy sector of Pakistan. The analysis was implemented on 27 firms in the Fuel and energy sector listed at the Karachi Stock Exchange for the period 2003-2008. Regression was used to find out the relationship between the independent variable (Profitability) and dependent variable (Leverage). We expect the negative relationship between the Profitability and the Leverage Policy of firms in the Fuel and Energy sector of Pakistan, confirming the pecking order theory of capital structure. The results found in our study were not as expected. The results showed that there is inverse relationship between profitability and leverage but our results were not that much significant to accept our hypothesis. So we rejected our pecking order theory hypothesis. Therefore we conclude that because of certain factors such as economic situation of the Pakistan, rising prices of oil all a round the world, interests rates and reliance of firms financing needs mostly on bank financing, pecking order theory model becomes insignificant in the Energy and Fuel sector of Pakistan. Chapter-1 Introduction Capital structure involves different decisions taken by a firm in financing its assets. Generally, a firm can solve this issue through different mixes of debts, equity, or other financial arrangements. It can also combine bonds, TFCs, lease financing, bank loans or many other options with equity in order to boost the market value of the firm. 1.1 Importance of the topic: Optimal capital structure plays a vital role in the overall value maximization of a firm. The strategic management of capital structure ensures access to the capital needed to fund future growth and enhance financial performance. Our focus in this study is to correlate the profit of the firm with its leverage. Importance of the study is to find out that which source of funds either retained earnings, debt or equity, a firm in the Fuel and Energy sector should prefer in order to optimize the profit and the value of the firm. In Pakistan, firms usually prefer short-term borrowing, because commercial banks are the major lenders and they do not encourage long-term loans. Up to 1994 firms did not rely on market based debt; in mid 1994 the government amended the Company Law to help companies to raise debt directly from the market in the form of TFCs (Term Finance Certificates). 1.2 Background of the study: Various capital structure theories had been discussed by many authors to explain the variation of capital structure of different firms. So many researches had also been taken place in order to solve the mystery of optimal capital structure in Pakistani firms. A thorough research study relating to the capital structure was carried by two Pakistani professors Shah and Tahir (2004) which attempted to answer the question of what determines the capital structure of Pakistani Listed firms other than those in financial sector. Booth, et. Al (2001) had also worked on the determinants of capital structures of 10 developing countries including Pakistan, but their data analyzed the firms that were included in the KSE-100 Index from 1980 to 1987. Shah and Tahir (2004) analyzed the data of non-financial firms for the period of 1997-2001 while our study differs from theirs on grounds of different sector, variables and period. 1.3 Objective of the study: The objective of this study is to find out the relationship between the profitability and the corporate leverage policy of firms in the Fuel and Energy sector of Pakistan. We are trying to figure out that the firms that have more profits in the Fuel and Energy sector have lower leverage. Our main focus in this study is to correlate the profit of the firm with its leverage in the context of pecking order theory. According to pecking order hypothesis firms tend to use internally generated funds first and than resort to external financing. This implies that profitable firms will have less amount of leverage. Therefore we expect a negative relationship between profitability and debt of a firm i.e. higher the profits of a firm, the lesser will be its debt. 1.4 Scope of the study: This study is limited on the Fuel and Energy sector of Pakistan. There are 27 firms of that sector which are listed on the Karachi Stock Exchange. But after screening the firms with incomplete data, we have selected 22 firms having complete data for six years from 2003-2008 as the study covers the period from 2003 to 2008. 1.5 Disposition of the study: This study is organized into five stages. In first stage we have described the background of our topic. In second stage review of literature has been done. In next stage we have explained our data and variables used in our analysis. At fourth stage we have discussed the model and the statistical test to be used. While the last stage concludes the results of the test. Chapter 2 Literature Review In this chapter we have gone through the various research studies regarding the leverage and well known capital structure theories. Capital structure refers to specific mixture of debt and equity a firm needs to finance its operations and optimal capital structure plays a vital role in the overall value maximization of a firm. This has given birth to different capital structure theories that attempt to explain the variation in capital structures of firms. The Miller Modigliani theorem showed that the market value of a firm is determined by the risk of its underlying assets and its earning power and is independent of the choices to finance its investments i.e the value of the firm is independent of the capital structure it takes on. But Myers suggested the contemporary thinking on capital structure in form of Static Tradeoff Theory. This explained that a firm initially following a target debt-equity ratio behaves accordingly. The costs and benefits related to the debt option make this target ratio. The costs and benefits are cost of financial distress, tax shields and agency cost. There are different theories that are used to explain the capital structure decisions which are based n the asymmetric information, tax benefits associated with the debt, bankruptcy cost and agency cost. The asymmetric information is related with pecking order framework and the other three are rooted in static trade-off choice. Under the trade off theory firms tried to equate the marginal benefits of an additional unit of debt with the related marginal cost, while holding the firms assets and investments plans. Under this model the key benefits are debt tax deductibility and the mitigation of agency cost while the main cost of additional debt is bankruptcy. Green, Murinde and Suppakitjarak (2002) observed that the tax policy also effect the capital structure decision of firms. Firm are allowed to deduct interest on debt in computing taxable profit under tax ordinance while the payments associated with the equity such as dividends are not tax deductible. Therefore, the tax effect encourages the debt usage by the firm if the rates are higher and more debt increases cash savings in form of after tax proceeds to the owner. Usage of debt in the capital structure of the firm also leads to agency cost which arises as a result of relationship between the share holder and manager while the firms management is the agent and the share holder being the principal. Agent may not choose to maximize their principals wealth. The conflict arises as the managers have less than 100% of the residual claim. Thus, managers may invest in projects that reduce the value of the firm while enhancing their control over its resources. Additional cash flow is the prime source of the agency cost. Debt helps to mitigate this agency cost as the firm is committed to pay out excess cash in the form of interest payments. The probability of bankruptcy increases with the increase in the level of the debt. If the firm goes beyond the optimum level of debt, then it is more likely that the firm will default on the repayment of the loan. As a result of that, the control of the firm will be shifted from share holders to the bond holders or the creditors who will liquidate the firm in order to recover their investment. There are also direct and indirect costs associated with the bankruptcy. Direct cost includes administrative costs of bankruptcy and costs of reorganization in the event of insolvency. While the indirect cost arises when the firm gets into financial distress. It may arise because of the change in the investment policies of the firm if firm foresees possible bankruptcy. In order to avoid the possible financial distress it will cut down the expenditure on certain departments like research and development, training of employees and advertisements etc. Therefore, if a firm is perceived to be close d to bankruptcy customers may be less willing to buy its goods because of low perceived quality of goods and the risk that the firm will not be able to meet its warranty obligation. Employees may also be less interested to work for the firm and creditors are less inclined to extend trade credit. Hence under the static trade off theory the optimal capital structure represents a level of leverage that balances the bankruptcy and the benefits of tax deductibility and mitigation of the agency costs. While The Pecking Order Theory of Myers (1984) and Myers and Majluf (1984), stated that firm while establishing its capital structure follow a hierarchy of financial decisions. First of all firm uses its internal financing i.e. retained earnings in order to finances its projects. In case of need of external financing, they prefer a bank loan first then go for the public debt. Thus in accordance with the Pecking Order Theory, profitable firms while having the available internal funds prefers not to incur debt for new projects. A study was carried by Benito, (2002) which considered the two most influential approaches, the trade off and packing order theories, in understanding capital structure decisions of firms of Spain and United Kingdom. This study made a valuable contribution to our study because of the same objective of testing Pecking Order Theory with reference to capital structure of firms. The resulting data included 6417 Spanish companies over period of 1985-2000 and 1784 British quoted non-financial companies over period of 1973-2000. The results provided significance in favor of pecking order theory, concluding debt ratios found to be significantly inversely related to cash flow and profitability of the firm and vary positively with its investment. In order to find the best empirical explanation for the capital structure of Brazilian firms Medeiros and Cecilio (2004) tested a model to represent the Static Trade-off Theory and Peking Order theory. This theory is helpful for our study because of the same independent variables that is profitability. Profitability all the STT streams sustain that a positive relationship must exist between profitability and debt. The stream based on bankruptcy costs states that these costs increase when earnings fall so that leverage tends to be lower for less profitable firms or those with higher earnings volatility. For the stream focusing on tax benefits, the more profitable the firm the more it benefits from the tax shield provided by interest payments. The agency stream believes that large amounts of free cash flows build up the dispute between shareholders and managers, which make those firms to issue more debt in order to diminish the problem (Fama and French, 2003). According to the POT, retained earnings are the firms best financing option. This type of resource does not produce information asymmetries and can be used promptly for new projects. The information asymmetry caused by equity issues or by more complex securities that require a higher degree of communication with the market is the basis of the POT. It is exactly to dodge the adverse selection premium brought by the information asymmetry that firms opt for internal financing as their major source of resources (Myers, 1984). The relationship between these two variables must be therefore negative. Medeiros and Cecilio (2004) The sample of their study included 371 non-financial firms with shares listed in the Brazilian stock exchanges from 1995 to 2002. The analysis of results of the study led to the conclusion that the pecking order theory provides the best explanation for the capital structure of those firms Another study on the capital structure was carried by Abor, (2008) comparing the capital structure of large un-quoted firms, small and medium enterprises (SMEs) and publicly quoted firms in Ghana using a panel regression model. On the grounds of the similar independent variable this study made a useful contribution to our review literature. The results showed insignificant difference between the capital structures of large unquoted firms and publicly quoted firms. The results of all sample groups showed that the total debt has relatively a high proportion of short-term debt. The results of the regression test indicated that age and size of the firm, profitability, risk, asset structure and managerial ownership are significant influencers in decisions regarding the capital structure of Ghanaian firms. Chiarella et.al (1991) conducted a study in Australia on the determinants of corporate capital structure by seeking to provide evidence on the significance of capital structure determinants in Australian context. This study provided a great support for writing review literature of our study. The analysis was carried on a sample of 226 Australian firms from 1977-1985. The results showed that company non-debt tax shields display a negative relationship with debt ratios. The results also supported the pecking order hypothesis of Myers and Majluf (1984) showing significant negative relationship of profitability with debt ratios and indicating that firms prefer to finance investments with internally retained earnings before issuing debts. The results provided some evidence of size effect indicating that the larger firms tend to employ more debts in their capital structure. Results showed positive but insignificant relationship between cash holdings and debt ratios while confirming the fre e cash flow hypothesis of Jensen (1986). Simultaneously results did not provide any support for growth opportunity and collateral value attributes as determinants of debt ratios. A study on the Malaysian companies regarding the capital structure and the firm characteristics was carried by an Indian professor Pandey (2000). This study is useful for our study because of one of the same independent variable i.e. profitability. The study was carried on Malaysian companies in order to examine their determinants of capital structure using data from 1984 to 1999 while classifying the data into four periods that relates to different stages of capital market of Malaysia. Results of the regression clarified that profitability, size; growth, risk tangible variables have significant impact on all debt types. Results showed persistent and consistent negative relationship of profitability with all debt ratios in all periods, thus accepting the prediction capital structure according to the pecking order theory. A research relating to the capital structure was carried by two Pakistani professors Shah and Tahir (2004) which attempted to answer the question of what determines the capital structure of Pakistani Listed firms other than those in financial sector. Because this study was also carried in Pakistan so it provided a support to a great extent in order to understand the capital structure according to Pakistans environment. A sample of 445 listed firms on KSE were taken and their five year data from 1997-2001 were taken into consideration. Pooled regression results indicated that assets tangibility is positively correlated with debt, concluding that asset structure does not matter in determination of capital structure of Pakistani firms. Size was positively correlated with leverage suggesting that large firms would employ more debt. Growth was found to be negatively correlated with leverage that supports the simple version of pecking order theory that growing firms finance their investmen t opportunities first by their internally generated funds. There was strong relationship between profitability and leverage. Profitability was negatively correlated with leverage that supports the pecking order theory. A study in Hong Kong was carried by Hung, et.al (2002) examing the inter-relationship between profitability, cost of capital and capital structure among property developers and contractors in Hong Kong. The results showed that capital gearing is positively related with assets but negatively with profit margins. Bartholdy and Cesario (2006) analysed the decisions regarding the capital structure of Portuguese non-listed bank financed firms. Primary purpose of the research was to find out the impact of debt tax shield on the decisions regarding capital structure of small non-listed firms. The secondary purpose was to find out that whether the determinants of capital structure of larger listed firms were also same as in case of smaller non-listed firms. The research explained that the solution of two big problems (agency and asymmetric information) for large firms are apparent on the balance sheet as restriction on debt. On the other hand it is less apparent on the balance sheet of smaller firms. This provided the smaller firms with the benefit of tax shield due to more debt. This research has provided a great support in writing our review literature and understanding the relationship between profitability and debt to a great extent. The sample of their research consisted 998 firms with 7765 fi rm years observations. The results concluded that the tax provisions regarding the carry forward of tax losses and debt tax shield play a vital role in determining the capital structure of small non-listed firms. It was also concluded that in order to solve agency problem traditional balance sheet variables were significant in large listed firms but were insignificant for the small non-listed firms with the exception of variables required to solve bankruptcy risk. A research study was conducted in Greece by Eriotis, et.al (2007) aiming to isolate the firm characteristics that effect capital structure. The investigation was performed using panel data for a sample of 129 Greek companies listed on Athens Stock Exchange during 1997-2001. The findings justified a negative relationship between the debt ratio of the firms and their growth, and size appeared to have a positive relation. Gropp and Florian (2008) conducted research study regarding the determinants of the capital structure of banks by examining the capital structure of banks from the prospective of empirical capital structure literature for non-financial firms. The sample of the study includes 200 largest listed banks (100 from US and 100 from EU) from the sixteen different countries (US and 15 EU members) from 1991 to 2004. The results suggest that the capital requirements may only be of second importance for banks capital structures and confirm the robustness of corporate finance findings in a holdout sample of banks. In order to examine the capital structure across countries a study was carried by Rajan and Luigi (1994). The primary objective of the study was to establish whether the choice of capital structure in other countries is based on the factors similar to those influencing capital structure of US firms. Study was on the 8000 non-financial corporations of G-7 countries (USA, Germany, Japan, France, UK, Italy and Canada) for the period of 1987-1991. After correcting the differences ranging from accounting practices to legal and institutional environments between the countries. results of the study showed extent to which firms are levered is fairly similar across the G-7 countries except UK and Germany being relatively less levered. Sakuragawa (2001) conducted another study regarding the capital structure of banks under non-diversifiable risk. The purpose of the research was to study the design of optimal capital structure of a large financial corporation when it faces a non-diversifiable risk. When there is a non-diversifiable risk the intermediary finds it profitable to issue equity because by issuing equity it can reduce the cost and the probability of banks failure. The intermediary designs the optimal capital structure by balancing the marginal benefit of reducing probability of banks failure against the marginal cost of debt-equity swap. Results showed that a large corporation under weaker conditions realizes more efficient allocation by issuing both debt and equity than by issuing only debt. An African study was conducted by cole-man (2007) whose aim was to examine the impact of capital structure on the performance of microfinance institutions. Panel data covering the ten-year period 1995-2004 were analyzed within the framework of fixed- and random-effects techniques. Results showed that the most of the microfinance institutions employ high leverage and finance their operations with long-term as against short-term debt. Results also revealed that the highly leveraged microfinance institutions perform better by reaching out to more clientele, enjoy scale economies, and therefore are better able to deal with moral hazard and adverse selection, enhancing their ability to deal with risk. Fernandez (2003) analyzed the driving forces of capital structure in Chile for the period 1990-2002. The purpose of the research was to study aggregate leverage and interest-bearing liabilities in isolation for all firms, and firms segmented by economic sector. Their sample of the study consisted of 64 firms having the complete information for the whole sample period of 1990-2002. Results while supporting the trade-off theory revealed that the firms favored equity over debt issues to cover their financing deficit because of the Chiles tax and monetary policies. In order to find out the determinants of very small firms financial leverage Barbosa and Cristiana (2003) carried a research. They described the relationship between profitability and financial leverage as: As far as profitability is concerned, the most common expectation in the financial structure literature is for a negative relationship with financial leverage. Toy and others (1974 p.877), Marsh (1982 p.126 footnote 22), Friend and Lang (1988 p.277), Titman and Wessels (1988 p.6) and Barton and others (1989 p.40) all say that in different words. According to them, a firm with a high profit rate, ceteris paribus, would maintain a relatively lower debt ratio because of its ability to finance itself from internally generated funds. The preference for raising capital first from retained earnings may be due, according to Titman and Wessels (1988 p.6), to the costs of issuing new equity or debt that arise because of asymmetric information or transaction costs. Marsh (1982 p.126 footnote 22) raises the possibility that the impact may be due to the tendency of firms to issue new equity immediately after periods of abnormally good performance. Hall and Weiss (1967 p.328) assert that relativel y profitable firms take some of their exceptional returns in the form of reduced risk, through retaining earnings, and, therefore, show lower debt to assets ratios. Rajan and Zingales (1995 p.1451) cite Jensen (1986) who predicts that, if the market for corporate control is ineffective, managers of profitable firms prefer to avoid the disciplinary role of debt. This preference would lead to a negative correlation between profitability and debt. Gupta (1969 p.522) speaks of a theory that extends the first belief above mentioned from the firm level to the industry level. Accordingly, profitable industries, because of the greater availability of internally generated funds related to their high profitability; tend to have lower debt in their financial structure. Last, Gale (1972 p.417-8) interprets leverage as representing the degree of risk or otherwise in the industries in which the firm competes and hypothesizes that leverage should then be negatively related to profitability. This a uthor himself acknowledges that his reasoning is somewhat at odds with previous discussions and theory, though. According to him, low debt to total capital ratios would reflect high industry risk because of two aspects. First, the corresponding capital structures would be the result of higher investment on the part of entrepreneurs, who, differently from lenders, place a lower value on security relative to rewards. Second, high-risk industries are, at least theoretically, associated with higher profitability. Barbosa and Cristiana (2003) Results of their research concluded that the growth, entrepreneurs risk tolerance, size and operational cycle were positively correlated with the financial leverage whereas asset composition, inflation, profitability and business risk are negatively correlated with financial leverage of very small firms. Chapter-3 Methodology In this section, we have explained the source of data, sample size, explanation and measurement of the variables, and the regression model. 3.1 Source of Data In this study financial data of firms listed on the Karachi Stock Exchange under Fuel and Energy sector of Pakistan is taken from the State Bank of Pakistan Publications Balance Sheet Analysis of Joint Stock Companies Listed on the Karachi Stock Exchange 2003-2008. 3.2 Sample size This study is carried on the Fuel and Energy sector of Pakistan. There are 27 firms of that sector which are listed on the Karachi Stock Exchange. But after screening the firms with incomplete data, we have selected 22 firms having complete data for six years from 2003-2008 as our study covers the period from 2003-2008. So we have 132 firm years for the panel data analysis. 3.3 Explanation and Measurement of the variables Basically our study follows the framework of Shah and Tahir (2005). We include only two variables in our study. First variable is leverage (dependent variable) and another is profitability (Independent variable). In this section we describe these two variables and explain how they are measured. 3.3.1 Leverage (Dependent variable) Leverage is explained as percentage of assets financed by debts. Different researchers have measured leverage differently. Frank and Goyal (2003) differentiated between two debt ratios, one based on market value while the other on book value. Debt ratio based on market value relates with the firms future situation whereas on the other hand debt ratio based on book value tends to reflect the past situation. While in our study measuring leverage through book value, we have mainly two reasons in our mind. First, one of the main benefits of debt is tax shield that is the interest payments are tax deductible expense, resulting in cash savings. Once the debt is issued these tax shield advantages do not vary by the market value of the debt. Second point in our mind while measuring leverage through book value is the relationship of debt with bankruptcy risk. The probability of bankruptcy increases with the increase in the debt. Moreover, in case of bankruptcy of a firm, the value of the debt through the book value of the debt is more relevant than the market value of debt. While measuring the financial leverage we faced a problem of choosing either total debt or only long term debt as percentage of total assets. Interestingly many capital structure theories favor long term debt but we have used total debt because the average firm size in Pakistan is small which limits their access to capital market because of technical difficulties and cost involved. So the firms in Pakistan prefer short term borrowing because of the fact that the major lenders in Pakistan are commercial banks and they discourage long term borrowing. Firms in Pakistan did not rely on the market based debt upto 1994, but in the mid of 1994 Government while amending Company Law, allowed firms to raise debt directly in the form of TFCs (Term Finance Certificates) from the market. Thus in our study we have measured the leverage through total debt to total asset ratio. 3.3.2 Profitability (Independent Variable) Profitability has been the main point of distinction between the Static Trade-off Theory and the Pecking Order Theory. Static Trade-off Theory explains that the firm with higher profitability has more reasons to issue more debt while taking tax shield benefit. While on the other hand, Pecking Order Theory presupposes that firms with larger earnings tend to use its internally generated funds i.e. retained earnings initially to fulfill their financial needs then they go for debt. Thus, Static Trade-off Theory expects a positive and direct relationship between profitability and leverage of a firm while Pecking Order Theory suggests negative relationship between the two above said variables. We have measured the profitability as the ratio of Net Income before Tax divided by the total assets. 3.4 Research hypothesis This research study supports the Pecking Order Theory hypothesis and our proposed research hypothesis is There is significant negative relationship between profitability and leverage of a firm. Ho: There is significant negative relationship between profitability and leverage of a firm 3.5 Regression Model Linear Regression analysis has been used in this study. Basically we have used pooled regression type of panel data analysis. By saying this we mean that the companys financial data and time series data are pooled together in a column. The equation for our regression model will be LG= ÃŽ ²0 + ÃŽ ²1 (PF) + ÃŽ µ. Where LG= Leverage ÃŽ ²0= Constant PF= Profitability ÃŽ µ= Error term Chapter 4 Results of the test and interpretation. This chapter contains the results of the descriptive statistics and linear regression test. There are 27 firms in Energy and fuel sector which are listed on the Karachi Stock Exchange. But after screening the firms with incomplete data, we have selected 22 firms having complete data for the six years from 2003-2008 as our study covers that specified period. So we have 132 firm years for the panel data analysis. 4.1 Data Consideration: For data consideration to be suitable for linear regression we graph the P-P plot of dependent and independent variable in order to check that the data is normally distributed. The P-P plots of profitability and leverage are as follows. Above Normal P-P Plot of Independent variable (Profitability) shows that the variable follows a normal distribution. On the other hand dependent variable (leverage) is also said to be fairly normally distributed. In order to show the linear regression model is appropriate for the data or not we graph a scatter plot between profitability and leverage which is as follows: Scatter plot shows that whether linear regression model is appropriate for the data or not. However above scatter plot appears to be suitable for linear regression. 4.2 Results of the test: After running the linear regression test on SPSS we have the following results. Table-1 Descriptive Statistics Total No: Minimum Maximum Mean Standard Deviation Profitability (PF) 132 -0.22 0.43 0.0515 0.12441 Leverage (LV) 132 .00 1.27 0.5588 0.27425 Valid No: (list wise) 132 Table-1 contains the descriptive

A Millimeter Too Far: Metastatic Melanoma Essays -- Disease, Disorder

Summary Metastatic Melanoma is defined as the transformation of normal melanocytes due to unregulated growth factors involved in normal cell proliferation. Identifying the altered genes via mutation, deletion or amplification will enable us to find a treatment that is tailored to correct that particular gene. Introduction Melanoma determines skin pigmentation. Neural crest cells give rise to Melanocytes which transfer to the skin and hair follicles during embryonic progression. There are 5 phases in which melanoma develops, firstly nevus, then dysplastic nevus, next radial-growth phase, after that vertical growth phase and finally metastatic melanoma. The most important transition is RGP to VGP because this is where keratinocyte mediated growth control is lost, related with tumour thickness being a forecaster of metastatic melanoma. Risk factors are environmental and genetic; exposure to ultraviolet radiation causes melanocytes to produce melanin, which is taken up by keratinocytes and hereditary mutations create susceptibility to developing melanoma. Symptoms are small dark spot, with irregular borders or a change in an existing mole. However, tests such as skin biopsy are carried out to verify whether the mole is a tumour or not. At the early stage, melanoma is excised with low chance of it reoccurring, but with metastatic melanomas an aggressive form of treatment would be needed such as chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Protective clothing, sun screen and early detection prevent melanoma from developing. Genes Altered In Metastatic Melanoma The development of melanoma is the attainment of mutations in regulatory genes. Three pathways have been found to be deregulated in melanocytic tumours, including the RAS-RAF-MEK-ER... ...l autonomous growth: the Rb/E2F pathway. Cancer Metastasis Rev. 18 (3), 333-43. 5. Linley AJ, Mathieu MG, Miles AK, Rees RC, McArdle SE, Regad T. (2012). The helicase HAGE expressed by malignant melanoma-initiating cells is required for tumor cell proliferation In Vivo. The journal of biological chemistry. DOI: 10.1074/jbc.M111.308973. 6. Maelandsmo GM, Flà ¸renes VA, Hovig E, Oyjord T, Engebraaten O, Holm R, Bà ¸rresen AL, Fodstad O. (1996). Involvement of the pRb/p16/cdk4/cyclin D1 pathway in the tumorigenesis of sporadic malignant melanomas. Br J Cancer. 73 (8), 909-16. 7. Melnikova VO, Bolshakov SV, Walker C, Ananthaswamy HN. (2004). Genomic alterations in spontaneous and carcinogen-induced murine melanoma cell lines. Oncogene. 23 (13), 2347-56. 8. Pà ³pulo H, Lopes JM, Soares P. (2012). The mTOR Signalling Pathway in Human Cancer. Int J Mol Sci. 13 (2), 1886-918.

Fathers and Sons by Ivan Turgenev

Fathers and Sons by Ivan Turgenev During the discussion, several articles were presented to the class. The subjects brought to light were the Russian economy during the 1850s, serfdom, and the question of whether Turgenev was obsolete or not. The articles on the Russian economy explained the state of transition the Russian economy was in during the mid-1850s. Prior to this period, there were members of the society called serfs. These were essentially slaves who worked on the fields of rich peasants, or the upper class.However, at this time Russia began to move away from serfdom. After this discussion, it would appear Turgenev places great importance on the time, place, and culture of his novel, as serfdom and the existence of social classes are a predominant feature in Fathers and Sons. I found this discussion interesting, as it clarified some aspects of the novel. For example, in Fathers and Sons, Nikolai is a relatively well off land owner, and he ‘owns’ many serfs.How ever, as the system begins to evolve, the serfs and their owners have some trouble adjusting to the new system of land ownership. The serfs are misbehaved and irresponsible, and these aspects of the culture and context form the setting of the novel. The article on the ‘Turgenev Question’ was interesting as well, because it highlighted some of Turgenev’s techniques, and what he’s famous for. According to the article, the art of Turgenev is in understatement: he manages to capture large philosophical, social, and historical movements as manifested in everyday life.This can indeed be seen in Fathers and Sons. Turgenev paints a picture of commonplace Russian life with characters like Nikolai Arkady, Pavel, Bazarov and Fenichka, using barely any overly dramatic devices. Yet, through the characters’ thoughts and interactions with each other Turgenev explores ideas such as familial relationships. Furthermore, he portrays other aspects of Russian life, incl uding the wide gap between social classes and the idea of young people rejecting all authorities.

Largest Metropolitan Areas in the United States

Largest Metropolitan Areas in the United States Some of the most populous cities in the United States have held on to those top spots decade after decade. In fact, New York City has been the largest U.S. metropolitan area since the countrys first census in 1790. The other long-time holders of top-three titles are Los Angeles and Chicago. To have a change in the top three, you have to go back to 1980 to have Los Angeles and Chicago trade places, with Chicago holding the number two spot. Then, you have to look back to 1950 to find Los Angeles moving down to number 4 behind Philadelphia and keep heading back to 1940 to have Detroit push Los Angeles down to number five.   The Census Bureaus Criteria The U.S. Census Bureau conducts official census counts every ten years, and regularly releases population estimates for consolidated metropolitan statistical areas (CMSAs), metropolitan statistical  areas, and primary metropolitan areas. CMSAs  are urban areas (such as one or more counties) with a city of more than 50,000 and its surrounding suburbs. The area needs to have a combined population of at least 100,000 (in New England, the total population requirement is 75,000). The suburbs need to be economically and socially integrated with the core city, in most cases by a high level of residents commuting into the core city, and the area needs to have a specific percentage of the urban population or population density. The Census Bureau first started using a definition of a metropolitan area for census work in the tabulation of 1910 and used the minimum of 100,000 or more residents, revising it in 1950 down to 50,000 to take into account the growth of suburbs and their integration with the city they surround. About Metropolitan Areas The 30 largest metropolitan areas in the United States are those urban and suburban areas containing populations of more than 2 million. The top five largest metropolitan areas  are still the five largest in population as represented in the 2010 U.S. Census. This list of the top 30 metropolitan areas spans from New York City to Milwaukee; youll note that many of the largest consolidated metros in New England stretch through multiple states. Several others across the country span borders as well; for example, Kansas City, Kansas stretches over into Missouri.  In another example, St. Paul and Minneapolis are both completely in Minnesota, but there are people residing right across the border in Wisconsin who are considered an integrated part of the metropolitan statistical area of Minnesotas Twin Cities. The data here represents the estimates from July 2016; a new census will take place in 2020. The 30 Biggest U.S. Metropolitan Areas from Largest to Smallest   1. New York-Newark, NY-NJ-CT-PA 23,689,255 2. Los Angeles-Long Beach, CA 18,688,022 3. Chicago-Naperville, IL-IN-WI 9,882,634 4. Washington-Baltimore-Arlington, DC-MD-VA-WV-PA 9,665,892 5. San Jose-San Francisco-Oakland, CA 8,751,807 6. Boston-Worcester-Providence, MA-RI-NH-CT 8,176,376 7. Dallas-Fort Worth, TX-OK 7,673,305 8. Philadelphia-Reading-Camden, PA-NJ-DE-MD 7,179,357 9. Houston-The Woodlands, TX 6,972,374 10. Miami-Fort Lauderdale-Port St. Lucie, FL 6,723,472 11. Atlanta-Athens-Clarke County-Sandy Springs, GA 6,451,262 12. Detroit-Warren-Ann Arbor, MI 5,318,653 13. Seattle-Tacoma, WA 4,684,516 14. Minneapolis-St. Paul, MN-WI 3,894,820 15. Cleveland-Akron-Canton, OH 3,483,311 16. Denver-Aurora, CO 3,470,235 17. Orlando-Deltona-Daytona Beach, FL 3,202,927 18. Portland-Vancouver-Salem, OR-WA 3,160,488 19. St. Louis-St. Charles-Farmington, MO-IL 2,911,769 20. Pittsburgh-New Castle-Weirton, PA-OH-WV 2,635,228 21. Charlotte-Concord, NC-SC 2,632,249 22. Sacramento-Roseville, CA 2,567,451 23. Salt Lake City-Provo-Orem, UT 2,514,748 24. Kansas City-Overland Park-Kansas City, MO-KS 2,446,396 25. Columbus-Marion-Zanesville, OH 2,443,402 26. Las Vegas-Henderson, NV-AZ 2,404,336 27. Indianapolis-Carmel-Muncie, IN 2,386,199 28. Cincinnati-Wilmington-Maysville, OH-KY-IN 2,224,231 29. Raleigh-Durham-Chapel Hill, NC 2,156,253 30. Milwaukee-Racine-Waukesha, WI 2,043,274

Minimum of Two - Development of Major Concerns essays

Minimum of Two - Development of Major Concerns essays Relationships, crisis, fear of change and letting go of the past, ultimate survival and the never-ending Web of Life are all major concerns of Tim Winton. They play a major role in his collection A Minimum of Two and are the base on which the characters and their lives stand. Each soul within the stories faces a crisis and change, along with the consternation of letting go of what was before change took place. Family and friendship give support to lean upon, or sometimes, an endless black hole to fall down. The Web of Life ties closely with the will to survive and both figure prominently in the collection. Winton explores and develops his concerns using a range of writing and language techniques that aid his stories to touch the reader on a deeper, more emotional level. Some of these techniques are simple, such as alliteration, repetition, juxtaposition and short sharp sentences. These help to ignite strength in the words to get Wintons adamant point across to his readers. Out behind garlands of surfers and waist-deep swimmers, she scored the swells with her strokes. Alliteration used in this passage from the story Laps encourages us to see Queenie not just as an ordinary surfer or waist-deep swimmer but as a determined person who cuts through the waves with strength and power. Short sentences used in The Water was Dark causes the reader to see the urgency and desperation of the situation as the girl drowns, and the repetition of words such as machine, cut, and harder also add to this feeling. In the last paragraph, as the girl dies, Winton juxtaposes some of his words and we see the girls hopeless fight against a force that will consume her in the end. The deliberate selection and placement of each sentence, of each word, shows her plight on a devastating level. That body thrashed and whitened the water, throttling o...

Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Art Essay

Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Art - Essay Example This is particularly in the many cases where parts of their cultural heritage have been used or misused for profit without the authorization or knowledge of the original owners. It is important that the rights of the indigenous people to control their intellectual property as well as be principally involved in the determination of the latitude and nature of access and reproduction are recognized. Ironically, while in the recent past many foreigners have been benefiting from selling reproducing and marketing other products through indigenous art, the first westerners in Australia did not even acknowledge the indigenous people had art. They assumed they were too backwards and primitive to conceptualize or appreciate such ostentation and all the art in Australia was treated as artifacts with only historical but not artistic or aesthetic value. From the days of initial occupation, there has been a long history of misuse and illegal exploitation of arts designs and a multiplicity of cultu ral expression such as oral traditions, music dances and crafts. In 1968, the government in an effort to safeguard the cultural heritage from exploitation came up with the copyright act of 1968. This law was a trendsetter for other legal frameworks that would later come to be implemented in regard to protecting the diversity of indigenous heritage is posterity.3 According to the act; copyright did not need to be registered, all one needed to have a copyright was to produce original work, as such any existing artistic expression such as music was by default the property of the community or individuals who had produced it. This law took cognizance of the fact that majority of those who owned the cultural expression being safeguarded at the time were not educated and they could not have followed convectional registration protocols. It therefore prevented unscrupulous individuals who may have desired to register such works as their own and take advantage of the ignorance of the indigeno us community. The law also provided that the copyright would only expire 50 years after the death of the creator of the works in question. Successive legislation was built on this law and one of the hallmarks was the 1983 decision in favor of the aboriginal artist agency which set the precedent for modern protection of intellectual property by proving indigenous works, just like any other creative works could be legally recognized as authentic. In addition, the 1983 act implemented UNESCOs convection for protection of world cultural heritage sites which Australia had ratified 11 years previously. 4 An examination of the history of copyright law in austral would be incomplete without a mention of the 1994 carpet case. This was a landmark in the legal protection of Aboriginal art, it pitted 3 aboriginal artists as well as the relatives of five deceased ones against Beechrow; a firm based in Perth which bought carpets in Vietnam and imported them in Australia for prices as high as $400 0 .5 The company reproduced the works of several Australian artists living and dead on the carpets to make them seem authentic and thus justify their high cost as well as a attract thousands of local and international clients

Liberal Education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Liberal Education - Essay Example Liberal education focuses on training the individual to use their own mind rather than simply regurgitating facts and specific methods as might be necessary in more technical fields. â€Å"This distinction goes back to Aristotle, who speaks of liberal, that is to say, free learning as being done for its own sake and not as a means to an end† (Brann, 2000). Rather than a rehashing of established facts and figures, a liberal education works to develop human understanding one person at a time. William Cronon (1998) identifies the liberally educated person as having numerous characteristics that can only be acquired by the kind of thoughtful dialogue and exploration this type of study can produce. According to Cronon, liberally educated people â€Å"Listen and they hear †¦ they read and they understand †¦ they can talk with anyone †¦ they can write clearly and persuasively and movingly †¦ they can solve a wide variety of puzzles and problems †¦ they respe ct rigor not so much for its own sake but as a way of seeking truth †¦ they practice humility, tolerance and self-criticism †¦ they understand how to get things done in the world †¦ they nurture and empower the people around them† and they make connections between these things. The subjects that are learned through a liberal education are thus not as clearly defined as those offered in more vocational fields. â€Å"While students should certainly learn some of the fundamental arts of inquiry such as logic and linguistics in the broadest sense as well as a lot of mathematics and experimental science, †¦ [these years should be used] for learning to be a human being† (Brann, 2000). Daniel Sullivan (2007) indicates that the subjects in which a liberal education might be pursued can lead to a wide variety of careers. These include the diplomat, the physician, the parents, the lawyers, the novelists, the manufacturers